Peak Oil

Peak Oil - the maximum global oil production, which has been or will be achieved. Theoretically, peak oil has been predicted American geophysicist King Hubbert, who created the model of the known reserves and assumed in 1956, in an article *, presented at the American Petroleum Institute that oil production in the mainland United States would peak between 1965 and 1970, and that global production will reach peak in 2000
Oil production in the U.S. peaked in 1971 [2] (in English), and has been decreasing since then. World production is not reached its maximum in 2000, proponents of the theory of peak oil offer the explanation that Hubbert's model did not account for the OPEC oil embargo in 1973 and 1979., Which reduced global oil consumption and delayed peak.
Since oil is a non-renewable resource, it is inevitable that one day global production will peak. Hubbert's theory is that the same calculations that successfully predicted the peak of oil production in the United States applicable to other cases, such as the peak of global oil production. Various estimates have been published world-time peak as Hubbert and others, and some of these dates in the past. This has led to criticism of his method and the predictions made using it.
Hubbert's theory is a constant subject of discussion because of the potential effects of decline in oil production, but also because of constant debate about energy policy. Range of views on the effect of the passage of Hubbert's peak extends from the belief that the market economy will provide a solution to the doomsday scenario for the world economy, unable to meet their energy needs.
Some oil executives, economists and analysts doubt that the theory of Hubbert's peak is applicable worldwide. On the other hand, Chevron has launched a promotional campaign Join you in our ranks?, Seeking to inform the public about the possible exhaustion of oil and to support the discussion of this issue. Web page campaign notes the conclusions made by the International Energy Agency (IEA) (in English) in the report «World Energy Outlook 2004", "Fossil fuels currently supply most of the world's energy, and will continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Although the current supply of large, they do not last. Oil production is decreasing in 33 of the 48 countries with the greatest generation, ... "
and unconventional oil deposits.
It should be noted that the original wording of the Hubbert treated "theoretical unlimited area" and that the model must be amended if there are significant man-made noise (eg, political or related to the protection of the environment).
Predicting the peak
Few would dispute that fossil fuel reserves are finite, and there will need alternative sources of energy. However, many critics argue that the peak is not going to happen in the near future and that the shape of the peak will be wrong, and the general, and not sharp as the Hubbert curve. As for any other mathematical model, the accuracy of the prediction is limited reliable baseline data. If variables are estimated incorrectly, the formula will give the wrong results.
In 1971, Hubbert used the estimates of global oil reserves above and below, to predict that global oil production would peak between 1995 and 2000. Association for Research on Peak Oil and Gas (ASPO) has calculated that the annual peak production of crude oil from conventional sources was in early 2004. Note, however, that the events that took place after Hubbert's prediction, could postpone the peak - in particular, the oil crisis of 1973, during which reduce the supply of oil has led to a shortage of oil, and, ultimately, to its less consumption. A surge in oil prices in 1990 due to the Gulf War was similar to the 1973 oil crisis impact on the offer, though not as strong as the last. On the demand side, the recession of the early 1980's and 90's. reduced demand for oil and its consumption. All these effects are, in general, to postpone peak oil.
ASPO was founded geologist Colin Campbell. Based on current information about known oil deposits, estimated value of future discoveries, increasing demand for oil and the available technology, ASPO predicts that world oil production would peak around 2010 peak of production of natural gas is expected between 2010 and 2020 (*), but from due to the difficulties of transporting the relatively volatile substance, the peak will depend on the region.
In 2004, the world consumed 30 billion barrels of oil over the same time was open only eight billion barrels of new reserves. Huge, easily mined deposits, just probably a thing of the past. In August 2005, the International Energy Agency said global consumption of 84.9 million barrels a day, or more than 31 billion barrels a year. This means that the excess of production over consumption now stands at 2 Mb / d (million barrels per day). Current stocks in the OECD cover 54 days of consumption, and a further 37 days are covered by reserves in case of emergencies.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) estimates (in English) that the oil reserves are sufficient to continue production for 50-100 years at the current rate of extraction. USGS study of world oil reserves, dated 2000, predicts a possible peak oil around 2037 on the objection is a senior Saudi oil industry insider who claims that the prediction of the U.S. government regarding the future supply of oil is a "dangerous exaggeration" [3] (born ). Campbell defends the position that the USGS estimates using the wrong methodology. For example, the OPEC countries exaggerate their reserves to get bigger quotas and to avoid internal critique. Population growth and economic might in the future lead to an increase in oil demand.
Finally, estimates of oil reserves, made USGS, possibly based on political considerations, however, than on research. According to the Information Department of the Energy Department of Energy, "estimates are based on non-technical considerations that support the growth of supply in the United States to the level needed to meet the projected demand." (Annual Energy Outlook 2007 with projections to 2030 (English)).
British Council on Energy Research predicts the onset of "peak oil" in the 2020s, the International Energy Agency - in 2030.
Energy return on investment
In the mid-nineteenth century, when the production of oil, the largest oil deposits mined fifty barrels of oil for every barrel consumed in the production, transportation and refining. This ratio is often referred to as the "energy-return investment» («Energy Return on Investment»). This ratio becomes less and less over time: currently producing between one and five barrels of oil for every invested in mining barrel. The reason for this reduction in performance that extract oil becomes increasingly difficult as the depletion of the deposit.
When this ratio reaches a level at which to extract one barrel should expend the amount of energy contained in a barrel, the oil no longer be used as a primary energy source. At that level, the energy used for oil production, to come from alternative energy sources.
Some other types of energy easier - thanks to the concentration of energy and relative safety at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, petrol is uniquely suited for transport. Oil is also suitable as a chemical raw material, as opposed to energy sources such as wind and sunlight. It is therefore possible that the extraction and refining of oil will continue even after the energy output will be negative.
Public response
Information on the studies Hubbert's theory of Peak Oil is becoming more prominent sociological phenomenon. Increased the number of people studying or interested in the theory Habbertovskogo peak oil depletion and concerns about the potential long-term consequences for society and the people involved in informing the public about peak oil.
Possible effects of peak oil
Initially, the peak of oil production will manifest as structural global oil shortage. The effects of such shortages will depend on the rate of decrease of production, as well as the development and implementation of alternatives. If the alternatives do not appear, many of the goods and services produced with the use of oil, will be in short supply, which will lead to a reduction in living standards in all countries.
There is also the likely political consequences of "peak oil."
In 1976, William Ofals published the book "Ecology and Politics of limited resources," * which states that as the main control system of the Western world have evolved between 1700 and 1900-mi-mi, these systems are very generous terms of natural resources, and began their imply. Our system of government, etc., are taken for granted (and depend on) unlimited growth and virtually unlimited natural resources, including oil and natural gas. The word "shortage" - not welcome in today's political discourse. This fact reduces the ability of governments to consider and mitigate the impending social and political issues related to the "peak oil."
Alternatives to conventional oil fields
Alternatives to oil are the sources of energy, replacing oil in one or more applications, including: as a primary source of energy, fuel for transport and as an ingredient in plastics and pesticides. Alternatives include tar sands, oil shale, and coal liquefaction and gasification. When conventional oil will enter a phase of exhaustion, the world will increasingly rely on these alternative sources of energy, but so far none of them are quite cheap, clean (do not pollute the environment) and available in quantities of at least close to the great everyday largest consumer of oil and natural gas in the world.
Current events related to oil
In late 2005, as the price of oil, Hubbert's theory and its potential consequences are attracting increasing attention. Volatility of oil and gas is notorious, and prices could be caused by many other factors, but most agree that increased demand, particularly from China and India, was the most important factor. This growth in demand is quickly approaching the peak Hubbert.
Oil prices
On June 2005, OPEC admitted that they 'hardly' be able to get enough oil to alleviate price pressure in the fourth quarter. It was expected that the summer and winter of 2008, oil prices will rise more, some have argued that this is a classic example of the excess of demand over supply. Others may explain it all sorts of geopolitical factors in the regions of oil production. Another possible explanation for rising prices - is that they are caused by too much paper money, not too little oil. According to this view, a sharp rise in prices of all commodities and real estate point to rising inflation. Although spring and summer of 2008 the price of oil has reached record levels in the $ 140 a barrel by the fall she fell below $ 40 a barrel.
In Russia recorded decline in production, although the government forecast says that growth will continue through 2030.
Experts also predict that at prices below $ 80 per barrel profitability is negative: no drilling will be.
Criticism
Hubbert model is controversial. Some economists are of the oil industry, for example, Michael Lynch (born), lead (in English) is the argument that the Hubbert curve, which has a sharp peak, is not applicable because of differences in global oil reserves, military and political factors, demand, and trade partnerships between countries and regions.
Critics like Leonardo Maugeri indicate that the proponents of Hubbert's peak, for example, Campbell, in the past predicted a peak in global oil production in 1989 and 1995, based on the then available data on volumes of production. Maugeri says that almost all of the estimates do not take into account the non-standard sources of oil, although the volume of these available resources are enormous, and the cost of production, albeit very high, decreasing due to improvements in technology. However, this position is offset by increasing consumption of all - for the last 35 years it has grown from 20 to 30 billion barrels per year. [Citation 28 days]
Further, he notes that the percentage of oil recovery from existing fields has increased from about 22% in 1980 to 35% today, with new technologies and predicts that this trend will continue in the future. According Maugeri, the ratio between proven oil reserves and current production increased steadily, from 20 years in 1948 to 35 in 1972 and reaching about 40 years in 2003. He also claims that this progress has been achieved despite the low investment in exploration and improvement of technologies due to low oil prices in the past 20 years. The current high prices may cause an increase in investment *.
At present, the debate focused on energy policy, as well as on whether to transfer the funding to increase the fuel efficiency and the development of alternative energy sources such as solar and nuclear energy. Those who disagree with Campbell, for example, Michael Lynch *, defend the position that it is not enough research done carefully. They point to the approaching date of the peak, which was initially predicted for 2000, but is now pushed back to 2010, but Campbell and his supporters insist that when it reaches peak production is not as important as the realization that he will come. Freddy Hutter * is his most persistent critic. During 2001-2003 in its monthly bulletin Campbell claimed that he made in 1996, the prediction of peak oil in 2000, no one has denied, despite Hutter notice an increase in production levels. Finally, in its April 2004 newsletter Campbell gave in and moved the peak in 2010. Then he changed the date to 2007, but in October 2005, returned in 2010. These shifts are due date predicted systemic lack of accurate information on oil. We'll know for sure only after the peak will be reached - and that not once, but perhaps years later.

Oil production in the U.S.

For a long time, the United States leads the world in production of oil. The U.S. share of world oil production is 11.5% (2005). However, in recent years, its production decreases. In 1970, it produced 480 million tons, in 1980 - 425 million, in 1991 - 370 million tons, in 2000 - 350 million tons
The largest oil-producing areas are the south-western states of Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, New Mexico, which supply nearly half of oil produced in the country. Within this area is developed oil and offshore zone Gulf of Mexico.
The second important area of ​​production and allocation of oil fields are on the Pacific coast in California (from Port San Luis to the city of Los Angeles), and the area to the south-east of that line. It produces more than 50 million tons of oil (14%) of all oil production in the country.) New area of ​​oil production became Northern Alaska, where in the 1960s explored large deposits of fuel oil near Prudhoe Bay, with more than 1.5 billion tons of mine North Shlore - 1.3 billion tons of annual production in Alaska is not less than 100 million tons of oil.
The U.S. also has the most developed oil industry. Refineries are located near the main areas of consumption of petroleum products - industrial centers of the Northeast, port centers where imported refined oil, along

traces of trunk pipelines.

In the United States there are three major areas of processing of oil: Gulf Coast, the band stretches to 300 km (Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi). It processed almost one-third of crude oil delivered to refineries in the country. Followed by South and Central California, which accounts for over 10% of the capacity of refineries, and strip the Atlantic coast from New York to Baltimore, which is concentrated to 10% of the capacity of refineries U.S..
The major oil companies of the country are Exxon Mobil and Chevron Texaco.
U.S. is the largest consumer of oil in the world. Daily consumption of oil in the country is about more than 2.6 million tons / day. (Or almost a quarter of the world), with about half of the country's oil consumption has to trucks.
Oil reserves in the U.S. is about $ 4 billion tonnes (2.2% of the world). The U.S. is also one of the leaders of oil imports - about 1.5 million tonnes / day.

Oil drilling

Drilling - the process of breaking up rocks with the help of special equipment - drilling equipment. There are three types of drilling:
vertical drilling
Directional drilling
horizontal drilling
Drilling wells - a process facility designed cylindrical excavation in the ground, the diameter "D" which is small compared with its length of the trunk "H", no access rights to the slaughter. Well at the beginning of the earth's surface is called the mouth, bottom - slaughter and the borehole wall form its trunk.
Cycle of well construction
Roller cone drill bit
construction of surface facilities;
deepening the well bore, the implementation of which is possible only if two parallel and types of work - actually deepen and rinse well;
formation isolation, consisting of two series of works: strengthening (attachment) borehole lowers pipe connected to the column, and plugging (cementing) annulus;
exploration wells. Often the development of wells in combination with some other types of work (baring and fixing bottom zone, perforation, challenge and stimulation of inflow (outflow) of fluid) call completion.

1. Preparatory work for construction. Receive documents for allotment of forest land to logging, and agreed with the FME, the skip plot coordinates on the spot; deforestation; planning area, the construction of a village, preparing the grounds for the drilling, preparation and layout of the site, the construction of foundations for tanks for fuel storage, devices obvolovki fuel storage, delivery of equipment and transportation.

2. Derrick work. Installation of equipment, installation of lines, installation derrick substructure, bases and units, installation and lift towers, commissioning.

3. Preparatory work for the drilling. After installation, drilling rig and construction privyshechnyh facilities, drilling accepted Special Commission. Driller with the committee checks the quality of work is testing equipment and examines the state of health and safety. Electric lighting should be in explosive lighting, by drilling should be emergency lighting 12 v; all deficiencies and observations Commission must be removed before collaring. Before the work is completed rig drilling tools, bits, casing pipes under guard and drill pipe, rigging devices, instrumentation, pits under the square, supply of water, chemicals and so on drilling should be: residential houses, cultural booth, dining room, drying room, a room for the analysis of solutions, fire fighting equipment in place, a set of hand tools and accessories, set of posters on safety, first aid kit, supply of petroleum products in containers clearly labeled with the type of fuel, a warehouse for drilling tools, storage for chemicals, a barn for the collection of waste liquids, a water source. After the adoption of the installation of installers is retrofitting block system, installation of equipment and facilities oprobirovanie Rigging (CMD protivozataskivatel etc.). Collaring made with the installation of mast direction set perfectly centered with the axis of the tower. Tower is centered, then under the direction of drill - falls pipe and cement, the top direction connecting with the groove. After sending the check again centration towers and rotor. Center wells drilled under the hole for the square and cased pipe. Drilling is turbodrills pit, holding it from the jet rotation hemp rope three to four obvivki. One end is attached to the foot of the tower, the other is kept in the hands of a pulley or foot tower. At the end of the preparatory work for at least 2 days prior to start drilling, conducted launcher conference with the administration of the expedition (Chief Engineer, Chief Technologist, Chairman of the Union, Chief Geologist and Chief PTI), which details are introduced to construct wells, geological section, the properties of rocks, expected complications, mode of drilling. Considered normative map, discussed measures for trouble-free, high-speed wiring. Drilling can be initiated if the following documents: geological and technical outfit (GTN), an act of commissioning the rig, regulatory card must be rotational log, Mud, log on labor protection, a register of the diesels. Rig should be: cementing equipment korotazhnoe equipment, posters on occupational safety and fire safety, heliport, drinking and industrial water, chemicals and materials for drilling fluids and cement, emergency tool, drill and casing pipe.

4. Well drilling (excavation and fixing). In the process of drilling a well bore out breed, resulting in a well bore, which must be secured by means of casing and cementing.

5. Test wells in the flow of oil and gas. Perforation of the walls of the column is made to access the productive horizon in order to obtain flow of oil and gas.

6. Dismantling of drilling equipment and privyshechnyh structures.

7. Reclamation allocated area. Performed on the well seal installation with a sign on the date and the name of the well drilling company carrying out the work. All burrow pits, burned garbage collected scrap metal for recycling. Drilling site is in compliance with the norms of environmental services.
Classification of wells intended
Wells for oil and gas, you can organize the following:
structural search, the purpose of which - setting (clarification tectonics, stratigraphy, lithology, estimate productivity levels) without additional construction of wells;
exploration, serving to identify productive facilities, and to delineate the already developed oil and gas-bearing strata;
mining (exploitation), designed to produce oil and gas from the earth's interior. This category includes the discharge, evaluation, observation and appraisal wells;
injection, intended for injection of water, gas or steam to maintain reservoir pressure and bottomhole treatment. These measures are aimed at lengthening the period of oil flowing mode or efficiency of production;
outstripping mining serving for oil and gas with simultaneous revision of the structure of the reservoir;
evaluation, the purpose of which - determination neftevodonasyschennosti initial and residual oil saturation of the reservoir (and conducting other research);
control and supervision, for monitoring the development of the object of investigation of the nature of reservoir fluids move and change gazoneftenasyschennosti formation;
reference wells are drilled for the study of the geological structure of large regions to establish common patterns of occurrence of rocks and identify opportunities for education in these rocks for oil and gas.
Drill stem 
The drill string is the flat in the well assembly of drill pipes joined together drill locks, designed to supply the hydraulic and mechanical power to the bit, to create an axial load on the bit, and to control the trajectory of wells being drilled.

As with the chisel and downhole motor drilling tools, drill string has the following functions:
transmits the rotation of the rotor to the bit;
perceives from downhole motors reactive moments;
submits to the face flushing agent;
hydraulic power leads to the bit and submersible hydraulic motor;
dents chisel to rock at the bottom, working its force of gravity (the axial load on the bit creates a piece of drill pipe (UBT), included in the layout of the bottom hole assembly (BHA), part of drill pipe (UBT) is used to tension the drill string ( namely tension drill pipe as a plumb) to create a perpendicular entire drill string relative to the ground). (Usually up to 75% by weight of the BHA to create an axial load on the bit, and 25% for the drill string tension is only valid in some CIS countries, many customers and drilling contractors disregard this rule placing priority on the driving of);
provides replacement bits and submersible motor by transporting them to the bottom or at the surface;
allows emergency and other special works in the borehole.

Oil reserves

Oil reserves in the world are judged differently, but is considered to be stocks that can be extracted with the current level of engineering and technology.
National classification
At present, Russia has a system of classification of reserves and resources of oil, gas, condensate, and they contain components that have a commercial value, established by Order of Russian Ministry of February 7, 2001 № 126. According to the degree of scrutiny reserves (resources) into the following categories:
Reserves:
A (explored, studied with full details)
B (explored, studied with detail sufficient for the draft field development)
C1 (explored, studied with detail sufficient to obtain baseline data for the development plan oil or pilot project developing gas fields)
C2 (inferred: the shape and size of the deposit, occurrence, thickness and reservoir properties, composition and properties of the oil, gas and condensate to outline the results of geological and geophysical surveys)
Resources:
C3 (future)
D1l (localized)
D1 (probable reserves of oil and gas litho-stratigraphic complexes, evaluated within large regional structures with proven commercial oil and gas.)
D2 (probable reserves of oil and gas litho-stratigraphic complexes, evaluated within large regional structures, commercial oil and gas not yet proved).

Starting from January 1, 2012 will come into force a new classification, approved by Order of the Ministry of Natural Resources November 1, 2005 № 298. According to this inventory (resources) of oil and gas geological knowledge degree of commercial development will have the following categories:
Reserves:
A (reliable)
B (installed)
C1 (estimated)
C2 (alleged)
Resources:
D1 (localized)
D2 (prospective)
D3 (forecast).
SPE-PRMS classification 
The most common in the world classification, it takes into account not only the probability of finding oil and gas in the field, but also cost-effective production of these reserves. Stock divided into 3 classes
Proved the probability of extracting 90%
Likely-50%
Possible 10% [1]
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UN Classification 
In order to harmonize the national classifications, compilation of best practices, the United Nations in 1990 set about developing a single international classification. The result in 1997 was that the framework of the United Nations Classification for Reserves / Resources: Solid Fuels and Mineral Commodities (UNFC-1997). Currently a framework classification of the United Nations for Fossil Energy and Mineral Reserves and Resources 2009 (UNFC-2009). UNFC-2009 is a universal system in which the number of classified based on three fundamental criteria: the economic and social viability of the project (E), the status and validity of the project to develop the field (F) and the geological knowledge (G), using a numerical coding system. Combination of these three criteria create a three-dimensional system.
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Classifications used in the U.S.
In the U.S., at the same time, there are several classifications of reserves: the classification of the Commission for the Securities Market (SEC), the classification of the Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), the classification of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), etc.

Fractional composition of oil

Fractional composition is an important indicator of the quality of oil. In the process of distillation at gradually rising temperatures of the oil was removed parts - fractions differing boiling range.

The atmospheric distillation the following fractions boiling up to 350 ° C - light oils:
up to 100 ° C - petroleyvaya fraction;
up to 180 ° C - gasoline fraction;
140-180 ° C - naphtha;
140-220 ° C - kerosene fraction;
180-350 ° C (220-350 ° C) - the diesel fraction.

Recently, the fraction boiling up to 200 ° C, referred to as the lungs, or petrol, from 200 to 300 ° C - average, or kerosene, above 300 ° C - heavy or oily.

All the fractions boiling up to 300 ° C, referred to as light, the remainder after the selection of light distillates (above 350 ° C) is called black oil. Fuel oil distilled under vacuum to afford the following fractions as a function of processing:
for fuel (350-500 ° C) - the vacuum gas oil (vacuum distillate);
500 ° C - the vacuum residue (tar).

Getting oil occurs in the following temperature ranges: 300-400 ° C - light fraction, 400-450 ° C - the average fraction, 450-490 ° C - heavy fraction, over 490 ° C - tar. Asphaltene deposition (AFS) is also referred to as heavy oil components - Tm ~ 80 ° C.

Refinery

Refinery - an industrial enterprise, whose main function is the processing of crude oil into gasoline, jet fuel, fuel oil, diesel fuel, lubricating oils, lubricants, bitumen, petroleum coke, the raw material for the petrochemical industry. Refinery production cycle usually consists of preparation of raw materials, primary oil refining and recycling of oil fractions: catalytic cracking, catalytic reforming, coking, visbreaking, hydrocracking, hydrotreating and mixing the components of finished petroleum products. For details, see Virtual Refinery
Refineries are characterized by the following indicators:
Option refining: fuel, fuel oil, fuel and petrochemical.
Processing volume (million tonnes).
Processing depth (output of petroleum products based on oil, in% by weight, less fuel oil and gas)

Profiles refinery

To date, the border between the profiles are deleted by becoming more versatile. For example, the presence of a catalytic cracking unit at the refinery allows to produce polypropylene from propylene, which is produced in significant quantities in the cracking, as a byproduct.

In Russian refiners are three refineries profile, depending on the processing scheme of oil: fuel, fuel oil, fuel and petrochemical.

Fuel profile

The refinery fuel-main products are various types of fuel and carbon materials: motor fuel, fuel oil, fuel gas, bitumen, petroleum coke, etc.

Service settings include: Required - oil distillation, reforming, hydrotreating, additionally - vacuum distillation, catalytic cracking, isomerization, hydrocracking, coking, etc.

Fuel and lubricants

The refinery fuel and lubricants in addition to various types of fuels and carbon materials produced lubricants: petroleum oils, grease, paraffin wax, etc.

Service settings include: plants for the production of fuels and plants for the production of oils and greases.

Fuel and petrochemical profile

The refinery fuel and petrochemical structure in addition to various types of fuel and carbon materials produced petrochemical products: polymers, chemicals, etc.

Service settings include: plants for the production of fuels and plants for the production of petrochemical products (pyrolysis, production of polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, aimed at reforming the production of individual aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.).

Preparation of raw materials

First the oil dehydration and desalting in special plants to extract salt and other impurities that may cause corrosion of equipment that slow cracking and reduce the quality of processed products. In the oil is not more than 3-4 mg / l of salt and about 0.1% water. Then the oil is fed to the primary distillation.

Primary processing - Distillation

Liquid petroleum hydrocarbons have different boiling points. This property is based distillation. When heated in a distillation column to 350 ° C of oil consistently with increasing temperature highlighted various factions. Oil refineries in the first distilled into the following fractions: naphtha (it boils at a temperature range 28-180 ° C), jet fuel (180-240 ° C) and diesel (240-350 ° C). Residual oil was distilled oil. Until the end of XIX century it was discarded as waste. For oil refining usually use five distillation columns, which consistently highlighted various petroleum products. The yield of gasoline in the primary distillation of crude oil is negligible, so it is carried out recycling for greater volume of motor fuel.

Recycling - cracking

Recycling of oil carried by thermal or chemical catalytic cleavage of primary refined petroleum products to get more gasoline fractions, and the raw materials for future production of aromatic hydrocarbons - benzene, toluene, and others. One of the most common techniques of the cycle - Cracking (born cracking - splitting).

In 1891, engineers VG Shukhov and SP Gavrilov offered the world's first industrial plant for the continuous implementation of the thermal cracking process: a tubular continuous reactor, where the pipes are forced lubrication oil or other heavy crude oil, and to the tube space served heated flue gases. The output of light components in the cracking process, from which you can then make gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel is from 40-45 to 55-60%. Cracking process enables components of fuel oil for the production of lubricating oils.

Catalytic cracking was discovered in the 30-ies of XX century. Catalyst seeds of raw and adsorbs on themselves above all those molecules that are able to quite easily dehydrated (give hydrogen). Formed with unsaturated hydrocarbons having high adsorption capacity, come into contact with the active centers of the catalyst. The polymerization of hydrocarbons, tar and coke there. Liberated hydrogen is actively involved in the reactions of hydrocracking, isomerization, and others. Cracking products enriched with high quality light hydrocarbons and the result is a wide gasoline fraction and diesel fuel fraction related to light oil. As a result, we obtain petroleum gas (20%), gasoline fraction (50%), diesel fraction (20%), heavy gas oil and coke.

Hydrotreating

Hydrotreated performed on hydrogenation catalysts using aluminum, cobalt and molybdenum compounds. One of the most important processes in the refining sector.

Objective of the process - clean gasoline, kerosene and diesel fractions and vacuum gas oil from sulfur, nitrogen, resinous compounds and oxygen. On hydrotreating may be made distillates secondary origin with cracking or coking plants, in this case there is also the process of hydrogenation of olefins. Capacity of the existing plants in Russia ranges from 600 to 3000 tons per year. Hydrogen required for hydrotreating reactions comes from catalytic reforming units or produced in special plants.

Raw gas is mixed with a hydrogen concentration of 85-95% by volume. Coming from circulation compressor to maintain the pressure in the system. The mixture was heated in an oven to 280-340 ° C, depending on the raw material, then enters the reactor. Reaction goes on catalysts containing nickel, cobalt or molybdenum at pressures up to 50 atm. In such circumstances, there is a destruction of sulfur and nitrogen-containing compounds to form hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, as well as the saturation of olefins. In the process through thermal decomposition produced a small (1.5-2%) of low-octane fuel, and with vacuum gasoil hydrotreater also produces 6-8% of the diesel fraction. In the diesel fraction of purified sulfur content can be reduced from 1.0% to 0.005% and below. Process gases are cleaned in order to remove hydrogen sulfide, which goes to the production of elemental sulfur or sulfuric acid.

Formation of the finished product

Gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil and industrial oils are divided into different grades depending on the chemical composition. The final stage of production refinery is to mix the received components for finished products desired composition. Also, this process is called compounding or blending.

Oil refining

The purpose of processing of oil (petroleum) - production of petroleum products, especially fuels (road, air, boiler, etc.) and raw material for subsequent chemical processing.
Primary Processes
Primary refining process does not involve chemical changes in oil and are its physical separation into fractions. First Field oil is the primary process of purification of crude oil petroleum gas, water and solids - this process is called the primary separation of oil. [1]
The oil
Oil enters the refinery as prepared for transport form. The plant is subjected to additional mechanical purification, removal of dissolved light hydrocarbons (C1-C4) and dehydration in the electric desalting plant (CDU).
Atmospheric distillation
Oil comes in a distillation column at atmospheric distillation (distillation at atmospheric pressure), which is divided into several factions: the light and heavy gasoline fractions, kerosene fraction, diesel fraction and the remainder of the atmospheric distillation - heating oil. The quality of the fractions does not meet the requirements to trade oil products, so the fraction is further (secondary) processing.
Vacuum distillation

Vacuum distillation - the process of distillation of oil (atmospheric distillation residue) fractions, suitable for processing in motor fuels, oils, paraffin and ceresin and other refined products and petrochemical synthesis. Remaining after this heavy residue called tar. Can serve as raw material for production of bitumen.

Secondary processes

The purpose of secondary processes is the increase in the number of motor fuels produced, they are related to the chemical modification of hydrocarbon molecules that make up the oil, usually with their transformation into a more easily oxidized form.

In their areas, all secondary processes can be divided into 3 types:

Deepening: catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, visbreaking, delayed coking, hydrocracking, bitumen production, etc.

Ennobles: reforming, hydrotreating, isomerization, etc.

Other: processes for the production of oils, MTBE, alkylation, production of aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.

Reforming

Catalytic reforming - catalytic aromatization products (increased content arena as a result of reaction formation of aromatic hydrocarbons). Are reforming gasoline fractions boiling range 85-180 ° C [2]. As a result of reforming gasoline fraction is enriched with aromatic compounds and its octane number increased to about 85. The product (reformate) is used as an ingredient for the production of motor gasoline, and as a raw material for the extraction of aromatic hydrocarbons.

Catalytic Cracking

Catalytic cracking - the process of catalytic thermal treatment of petroleum fractions to produce high-octane gasoline component and unsaturated fatty gases. Feedstock for catalytic cracking are atmospheric and light vacuum gas oil, the objective of the process is the splitting of heavy hydrocarbon molecules, which would use them for the production of fuel. In the cracking process, a large amount of fat (propane-butane) gases, which are divided into separate factions and are mostly used in the tertiary processes at the refinery. The main products of cracking are pentane-hexane fraction (so-called. Natural gasoline) and naphtha cracker, which are used as components of gasoline. Residue cracking unit is a component of fuel oil.

Hydrocracking

Hydrocracking - the process of splitting molecules of hydrocarbons in excess of hydrogen. Hydrocracker feedstock is heavy vacuum gas oil (average fraction of vacuum distillation). The main source of hydrogen is natural gas reforming. The main products are diesel fuel hydrocracker and Sc. Hydrocracking gasoline (gasoline components).

Coking

The process of obtaining petroleum coke from heavy fractions and residues of secondary processes.

The isomerization

The process of obtaining izouglevodorodov (isopentane, iso-hexane) of the hydrocarbons of normal structure. The aim of the process is to obtain raw materials for the petrochemical industry (isoprene from isopentane) and high-octane components of gasoline.

The alkylation

Alkylation - alkyl introduction into the molecule of an organic compound. Alkylating agents are typically alkyl halides, alkenes, epoxy alcohols, less aldehydes, ketones, esters, sulfides, diazoalkany.

Modern ways of refining

Modern ways of refining
Modern high oil and gas enterprises have complex in construction machines and vehicles, which can operate at low temperatures, high vacuum and high pressure in hostile environments. Industrial processing of oil in modern refinery is through a complex multi-physical and chemical treatment to separate or combined processing plants for production of a large range of oil products.
Technological processes refinery divided into physical (primary) and chemical (secondary). Physical processes of the division of oil reached its component parts (fuel and oil fractions) or removal of residual oil fractions or unwanted chemical group. components. In chemical refining of crude oil carried by chemical reactions to produce new products.

Chem. processes in modern refineries are divided:

1) by the method of activation of chemical reactions - for thermal and catalytic

2) the type of proceeding in which chemical reactions - the destructive, hydrogenation and oxidation.

The main process of refining (after CDU) is an atmospheric distillation, which are selected fuel fractions (gasoline, lamp oil, jet and diesel fuels) and fuel oil, used either as a component of boiler fuel or as raw material for further downstream.

Contribution to the development of theoretical bases, improvement and modernization of technology processes and devices, development and implementation of high-resource-and energy-saving technologies, active and selective catalysts, in addressing the deepening of refining and optimizing the quality of oil products made by the scientists of the Ufa State Oil Technical University.

Increase in the production of petroleum products, and diversification and quality improvement, the main tasks assigned to the oil industry at the moment. The solution of these problems in an environment where continuous increase in the proportion of processing high-sulfur and sulfur, and in recent years and vysokoparafinistyh oils required changing technology of oil refining. Acquired secondary importance, and especially catalytic processes.

Production of fuels that meet modern requirements, it is impossible without the use of processes such as catalytic cracking, catalytic reforming, hydrotreating, alkylation and isomerization, and in some cases, hydrocracking. Reforming at lower pressures in the system and in combination with extractive distillation and solvent extraction produces aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylenes and higher) used in the petrochemical industry.

Hydrotreating of petroleum distillates is one of the most common processes, particularly in the processing of sulfur and high-sulfur crudes. The main purpose of Petroleum distillate hydrotreating is to reduce the content of sulfur, nitrogen, and organometallic compounds. When hydrotreating decomposes organic substances containing sulfur and nitrogen. They react with hydrogen, circulating in the system, with the formation of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, which are removed from the system.

Isomerization - the process of converting low-octane paraffin hydrocarbons, predominantly C5 and C6, or mixtures thereof, in appropriate isoparaffin fraction with a higher octane rating. Polymerization process converting propylene and butylene into liquid oligomeric products used as components of gasoline, or raw materials for petrochemical processes. Depending on the feedstock, catalyst and process conditions of the product can vary widely.

Oil production

Oil production - oil industry sub-sector, economic sector, covering exploration, extraction of natural minerals - oil.
Oil production - a complex manufacturing process, which includes exploration, well drilling and repair, cleaning of crude oil from the water, sulfur, wax and more.
Methods of oil production
Development of oil produced by the construction of oil wells and mining method.
On how to extract the well fluid modern methods of oil production are divided into:
Fountain (seep is due to a difference of pressure in the reservoir and the pressure at the wellhead)
gaslift
Booster production, including using different types of pumps:
installation of electric centrifugal pump (ESP)
installation of electric screw pump (UEVN)
installation of downhole sucker rod pump (ShSN)
etc.
The unit cost of production
According to Rosneft, the cost of [specify] oil is 2.57 dollars per barrel.
Story
Oil is known to mankind since ancient times. Excavations on the banks of the Euphrates, the existence of oil field for 6000-4000 years BC. e. At that time it was used as a fuel and oil bitumen - in construction and road building business. Oil has been known and ancient Egypt, where it was used for embalming the dead. Plutarch and Dioscorides mention oil as a fuel to be used in ancient Greece. About 2,000 years ago, it was aware of its deposits in Surakhani near Baku (Azerbaijan). By the 16th century. message refers to the "flammable water - thick" brought from Ukhta to Moscow in Boris Godunov. Despite the fact that, since the 18th century., Isolated attempts to clean oil, yet it has been used almost to the 2nd half of the 19th century. mainly in kind. Oil was paid a lot of attention only after it had been proved in practice, Russia factory Dubinin brothers (from 1823), and in America chemist B. Sillimanite (1855), which can select a kerosene - light oil, such photogenic, has already acquired widespread and is produced from some types of coals and shales. Contributed to this emerged in the mid-19th century. method of oil production by drilling wells instead of wells.
The first well of oil (exploration) industrial process was drilled on the Absheron peninsula in 1847, the first production well was drilled on the river. Kudakov Kuban in 1864. In the U.S., the first well was drilled in 1859.

Petroleum industry

The oil industry, economic sector, producing, processing, transportation, storage and sale of natural minerals - oil and related petroleum products. For related industries include geophysics, drilling, oil and gas production equipment. The basis of the oil industry are vertically integrated oil companies.
Oil production
Oil production - a complex manufacturing process, which includes exploration, well drilling and repair, cleaning of crude oil from the water, sulfur, wax and more. Engaged in oil and gas oil production management - enterprise (or a structural unit of the company) is engaged in mining and pumping "crude" oil and gas to a host of commercial accounting. The infrastructure typically includes NGDU CSN (booster pump stations), SNS (group pumping station) Treatment Plants (node ​​preliminary water), infield pipelines (Pipelines)
transportation of oil
Pipelines is engineering construction pipeline designed to transport oil. Distinguish between main and field pipelines. Construction and maintenance of the pipeline is very expensive, but still - it's the cheapest way to transport oil and gas.
For oil on the waterways used tankers and supertankers (mega ocean tankers with a displacement of 320 000 metric tons (see dwt) which is used to transport crude oil from the port of loading to the place of an overload or directly to the refinery.)

oil refining

The purpose of processing of oil (petroleum) is the production of petroleum products, primarily different fuels (automotive, aviation, boiler, etc.) and raw material for subsequent chemical processing. Gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil and industrial oils are divided into different grades depending on the chemical composition. The final stage of production refinery is to mix the received components for finished products desired composition.

Corruption in the oil sector

The risk of corruption in the oil sector is associated with the following features:

the volume of transactions - transactions in the industry associated with very large sums;

large margin (price sector is generally much higher than the cost of production);

concentration of financial flows and thus reducing accountability of government agencies receiving income to the population;

complexity of technology, industry structure, legal and fiscal mechanisms to help mask their corrupt activities;

natural monopolies: the emergence of natural monopolies, typical for the industry, creating opportunities for corruption through the regulation of access to resources or the introduction of fees for their use.

Types of corruption what are typical for the industry

Political corruption, whose mission - to influence policy in the industry, the adoption of laws and tax regimes that benefit certain individuals or groups of individuals to the detriment of the common good.

Administrative corruption - the abuse of a position of authority in order to illegally obtain income or other benefits in exchange for the approval of any transactions (trade or business), condoning corruption, the "right" interpretation of the tax laws.

Commercial corruption - abuse in procurement and bidding, kickbacks and inflated costs.

Large-scale corruption - a direct appropriation of large sums of money through the unauthorized use of production capacity, product, or income.

The main participants of corruption schemes in the industry

Government - corrupt relations can occur between governments, its oil and mining it.

Oil companies and companies serving the oil sector.

Influential merchants whose activities range from lobbying before the conclusion of illegal transactions, from the political to the large-scale corruption.

Banks - the laundering of funds illegally obtained through corrupt activities.